Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Yes, it's time for a long-overdue post. I know I mentioned that I was going to cover this topic on at least two psychology posts and on another of my blogs, so here it finally is.

This is not mere semantics. This is not nitpicking about the way terms are used. This is informing readers about the real difference between prejudice and discrimination. This is also to inform readers that it is possible to have one without the other.

Prejudice: an attitude held about an individual and/or group of individuals based on perceived characteristics believed to be shared by the group. Prejudice is an attitude. I've already written about the different components of attitudes here. Remember, attitudes 1) are learned; 2) have three components (emotion, behavior, thoughts); and 3) are poor predictors of behavior. Notice, also, that a prejudice is simply an attitude. Although even college textbooks will throw in the words "primarily negative" before "attitude" in their definition, the truth of the matter is that prejudices can be positive as often as they can be negative. What makes a prejudice unique as opposed to other attitudes? Honestly, not a whole lot, except they do seem to be applied primarily toward perceived characteristics of other people, and not so much toward objects, though sometimes a prejudice may be formed about certain ways of thinking (like political ideologies). When we assume that people like us are favorable, we display a positive prejudice. When we decide we don't care for someone because they are "one of those people," then we display a negative prejudice. Prejudices are heavily influenced by stereotypes, which are in turn influenced by all the other circumstances--direct exposure, learning, second-hand hearsay, media, etc.--that lead to other attitudes. A prejudice can be changed, for good or ill, from positive to negative and vice versa.

Discrimination: differential treatment of individuals. Discrimination is an act. We are talking about overt behaviors (see a previous post of mine on what is considered a behavior). Notice again that there is not any sort of emotional attachment to the definition, although many text books include terms such as "negative" or "harmful" in their use of the term. On the surface, discrimination happens all the time. When you choose chicken over fish, you discriminate between the dishes, putting them into different categories and then making a decision based on the qualities of the categories and what you desire at the time. The same occurs, without violating civil rights laws, in employment when a company sorts candidates into "piles" based on their education, experiences, and skills and then select candidates who they feel fit the requirements of the job. Problems arise when discrimination, or differentiation, of individuals occurs based on stereotyped beliefs that have very little to do with necessity. Judging a person's honesty (this is a prejudice, by the way) based only on superficial things like their skin color or age and then treating them differently from others not in this perceived group (this is a discrimination) because of this judgment, is when things go wrong and fairness gets thrown out the window. It is possible to show "positive" discrimination. This is usually called favoritism, nepotism, or even reverse discrimination. It's still a form of differential treatment.

Can you be prejudiced without discriminating? Absolutely! Many people hold positive and/or negative attitudes about certain classifications of individuals and still choose to treat everyone as fairly as possible, to not let their preconceived ideas influence their choices. Unfortunately, our society has moved to a point that we want to control the thoughts and opinions of others. We now have a collective negative prejudice toward individuals who have prejudices. We stereotype anyone who uses a stereotype, even if said classification is honest or accurate. We assume that anyone who believes in a positive or negative stereotype is automatically going to unfairly mistreat others based on those thoughts. That's unfair treatment and stereotyping in itself.

Can you discriminate without having a prejudice? Sure thing! In fact, this is what is expected of us all the time. If you didn't discriminate, then you would date anyone who came along or hired any person who applied to the job even if they weren't qualified, or eat any food that was presented to you, or watch any movie that played at a theater. We differentiate between people and things all the time and it's not always tied to a stereotype-driven attitude about them. The intent and the thought process used are the key factors in determining unlawful or harmful discrimination or not. We also look for larger patterns to determine if a harmful discrimination occurred. Two is a coincidence, three is a pattern, four or more is a potential conspiracy.

It is okay to hold beliefs, positive or negative. That is your right, especially in countries like the United States that value individual freedoms. It is your actions and your intent with those actions that are subject to judgment to maintain as a fair a society as we can achieve.

Just How Many People Are Actually Depressed?

Unfortunately, this is another topic that everyone thinks they know and most people don't care about unless it affects them personally or it comes to media attention, such as with the relatively recent death of Robin Williams. Honestly, I become rather irritated when someone who is feeling "blue" claims that they are depressed or when someone else accuses a person of having depression, as if it is an excuse for certain behaviors (or lack of behaviors) and then proceeds to "cheer them up" with quick fixes like alcohol or sex. True depression is not easily fixed in a few hours or even overnight. True depression is not an excuse or an emotion. It is a complex mood disorder that is still being studied because, honestly, very few people are ever truly "cured" in any permanent way. Psychology and psychiatry are working on it. We've got a long way to go. Let's shed some light on the reality of the disorder.

Mood disorder: a category of psychological disorders affecting an individual's mood or affect. As I mentioned in an earlier post, an emotion such as sadness is a quick, short, instantaneous physiological and cognitive response to a stimulus. Once the emotion subsides, we are left with a milder mood that lasts for hours or as long as days. Mood disorders are classified when an individual's mood appears to be abnormal to their customary behavior or personality pattern or abnormal (i.e. unexpected) to a particular stimulus, outside of the society's expected norms of behavior. Someone laughing hysterically at a tragedy and staying in a positive (NOTE: not optimistic) mood in the aftermath would certainly raise some eyebrows. In order to determine if an individual suffers from a mood disorder, the abnormal behavior has to persist for a significant amount of time. This is to rule out other possible explanations. I am going to focus only on the depressive disorders for this week's post. Mania, cyclothymia, and bipolar disorder are a different side of the coin. The other thing to keep in mind with most mood disorders is that even without treatment, an individual may experience periods of the disorder between periods of normalcy. A depressed individual isn’t necessarily always suffering from depression all day, every day. They may experience joy between episodes. Treatment helps to increase the length of those “normal” moments and reduce the abnormal periods.

Dysthymia: a mild depressive mood disorder, usually caused by a stimulus outside the individual (loss of job, breakup, etc.), that lasts at least 2 years or more before diagnosis. Many cases of dysthymia go longer than 2 years before diagnosis occurs. Part of the idea is that this mild mood disruption will work itself out in most people; you're supposed to "get over" whatever the cause is long before the 2-year mark. Symptoms are also not as severe as other depressive disorders. People with dysthymia usually maintain their regular routines and social patterns, but with less vigor than before. They may feel like life is sometimes a big effort, but they haven't lost all their motivation to continue day-to-day activities. People who know them might take a while to grasp that something more serious is afoot, trying to be understanding until they lose patience with the sufferer. Cognitive therapy is often the most successful with this type of depression, as there is an actual root cause that can be dealt with.

Major depression (also known as clinical depression): severe depressive mood disorder that comes on suddenly, has no apparent outside stimulus, and lasts at least 6 months. This is the type of depression that presents the most danger to the individual and is the most difficult to treat with a blanket treatment. Symptoms are much more severe than with dysthymia, thus the shorter time frame for diagnostics. Many people suffering from clinical depression find it difficult to do much. They may lack the motivation to get out of bed, go to work or school, interact with friends or family, eat or drink, or take pleasure in their usual enjoyments.
A subset of major depression known as endogenous depression appears to have no single catalyst to its onset. It is believed by many therapists to be caused by some form of chemical imbalance in the brain. The primary suspects are serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. It is believed that severe depression, another label for this mood disorder, is caused by an imbalance in one or more of these chemicals. Unfortunately, there is no test that I know of to determine an individual's neurotransmitter levels, so many physicians must experiment with various antidepressant mixes until the right one is found for each individual patient.
The worst cases of major depression occur when patients do not respond to any medication or alternative treatment. Psychotherapy may help, but not without a lot of work on the part of the patient and support (NOT coddling!) from the patient's social support network. Time is also a key factor in successful treatment. The ugly truth is, however, that even if a person is cured of their severe depression, they have a high risk of succumbing to the disorder once again. This is also the type of depressive disorder most associated with suicide. With no external cause and treatments that can be frustrating in their duration, many patients simply give up, looking for an escape from their problem. Sometimes a patient who appears to be on the mend may turn to suicide because the treatment has helped them regain just enough energy and motivation to end their life but not enough yet to keep fighting for it.

Postpartum depression: depressive disorder affecting some women after giving birth. A milder form of this is commonly known as "baby blues" and it may affect as many as two-thirds of women. Baby blues typically involves mild feelings of anxiety, despair, and depression in the first few weeks following childbirth. This does not necessarily involve bouts of uncontrollable mood swings, as shown in the movie Look Who's Talking. Many physicians believe that the hormonal turmoil resulting from pregnancy and delivery put extra emotional strain on the mother. Baby blues usually works itself out before the child's second month, sooner with proper medical treatment and support from friends and family.
For something like 15% of women giving birth, a more serious postpartum depression takes place. This severe depression has similar symptoms to major or clinical depression, but it coincides directly with childbirth. Mothers not only lack motivation to continue their regular routines, they also do not have any desire to care for their children. This can be especially detrimental to the infant, as the first few months are the most critical for bonding. Postpartum depression may last months following childbirth. The sooner the mother receives treatment, the healthier both herself and her baby will be. Again, familiar or other social support is critical for successful treatment.

Seasonal affective disorder: otherwise known as winter depression, a depressive disorder that affects individuals primarily during seasonal periods of lower sunlight, such as autumn and winter. Symptoms include: oversleeping and difficulty staying awake, fatigue, cravings, an inability to cope with day-to-day activities or unexpected experiences, and social withdrawal. The primary cause of SAD (yes, I’m aware of the irony of the acronym) seems to be a sensitivity to levels of sunlight. Individuals suffering from SAD will experience these symptoms during months of longer nights and shorter days. Once the days grow longer, the symptoms recede. Not surprisingly, a larger prevalence is found the further north of the equator one travels. The main mode of treatment is known as phototherapy, in which an individual is exposed to extra hours of sun-like light during the shorter days. I suppose a month-long vacation in the tropics would help too, but I don’t anticipate many insurance policies covering such treatment.

Overall, mood disorders are very serious, but too often misunderstood. We take it for granted that anyone can just flip a switch and get out of their funk. While it may be easy for one person to overcome a personal set-back or tragedy, others are wired such that they need more assistance to “bounce back.” Understanding, but not making excuses, and emotional support are the best things one can do for someone suffering a depressive disorder. Getting to psychotherapy as quickly as possible is also extremely important, even more than finding a magic pill to pop, as psychotherapy has been proven to as effective as, if not more so than, medication, especially when the two methods are combined.

Are You Assertive?

The way you approach someone, the way you speak to them, and how you treat them says quite a bit about your attitudes about that person and about yourself. There is a continuum representing the amount of respect a person has for themselves versus respect for they have for others. This continuum ranges from aggressive to submissive, with assertive in between.

Aggressiveness: saying and getting what you want at the expense of others. [See my previous post on violence and aggression for a more extensive discussion of physical aggression.] Aggressive communication is bullying. When someone pushes around another person so that they get what they want while squashing the other person, they are being aggressive. Respect and concern for self is very high. Respect and concern for others is very low. An aggressive person frequently oversteps their rights, infringing upon the rights of others.

Submissiveness: consistently giving in to others, especially on points of possible contention. A truly submissive person has very low concern and/or respect for themselves and very high concern and/or respect for others. They either don't like to make decisions for themselves or they may be too afraid to confront the other person. This is especially the case when a submissive person faces an aggressive person. An interesting point to make here is that both submissiveness and aggressiveness can be situation-specific. While there are some individuals who are almost always submissive and some people who are almost always aggressive, more individuals select their communication style based on the person or circumstance they face at the time. A person may start off submissive, for example, but tire of the overstepping of another and push back.

Mixed somewhere in between aggressiveness and submissiveness is passive aggressiveness. This occurs when an individual appears to be submissive, but uses their martyrdom or victim status to manipulate others. Many individuals who use this style of communication feel bad about being "pushovers," but they do not want to deal with the guilt or negative backlash of being openly aggressive. Due to its manipulative nature, many individuals consider this style to indicate even less respect for the other person than open aggression.

Assertiveness: standing up for your rights when someone is about to infringe upon them without overstepping or infringing upon another person's rights. Assertiveness means acting in your own best interests by expressing your thoughts and feelings openly and honestly. It also means a willingness to hear out the other person's thoughts and feelings. For an assertive individual, one person's rights end where another person's rights begin. This communication style shows an equally high amount of respect for one's self and for others. You aren't going to push around others, nor will you let others push you around.

If it helps to illustrate the differences, let's apply these ideas to a popular set of characters--My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic. Although the main characters all skew to the nice and friendly range, they have their moments when they exhibit either passive, aggressive, or passive aggressive behaviors. The obvious illustration for passive behavior is Fluttershy. There are many episode in which her friends try to get her to stand up for herself and stop being such a pushover. The most aggressive of the main characters is Rainbow Dash. Many times she believes that her way is the best or only way; she sometimes refuses to budge on her opinions until it's almost too late. The most talented at passive aggressive behavior, the master of the guilt trip, is Rarity. Sometimes her use of overly dramatic expression is meant to appear that she is willing to "suffer" for her friends, but it is presented in such a way that they give in to her desires. Of course, as a kid's show about friendship, Rarity often suffers from a lot of guilt after her manipulation. The most balanced and assertive of the main characters is probably Apple Jack. While she does express her own ideas and opinions, she also invites her friends to contribute theirs.

The bad news is that many people, especially if they have been told that they are too submissive, often confuse aggression for assertiveness. They swing the pendulum in the opposite direction, taking revenge for being oppressed by oppressing others in turn. Assertiveness doesn't work that way. The good news is that real assertiveness can be learned. Good quality assertiveness training programs include the following basic steps.

1) Understand what assertive communication really is. This means focusing on behaviors instead of personality characteristics. In a confrontational situation, an assertive individual will describe the other person's unwanted behaviors, express their feelings about the behaviors to the others person, specify desired or needed behavioral changes, and offer rewarding consequences for the changes.

2) Monitor your communication style. Identify when you are not assertive. Figure out who intimidates you, which topics lead to discomfort, and which situations lend themselves to either aggressive or submissive responses from you.

3) Observe a model's assertive communication. Often real examples help us identify the behaviors we want to emulate.

4) Practice assertive communication. Start with friends and family who are the most supportive of you, then work your way toward general interactions.

5) Adopt an assertive attitude. You're not going to let others push you around and you will respect the rights of others, as well.

My rights end where another person's begins. Mutual respect and care keeps relationships balanced, equal.

Is There Really a Difference between Violence and Agression, or Are We Just Splitting Hairs?

Violence, aggression, and hostility are words that many people tend to throw around as if 1) they meant the exact same thing and 2) they can fit one's own agenda with ease. One of the things that I find truly interesting, possibly because of such vast misunderstandings of these topics, is that many parents would much rather expose their children to "violent" or "aggressive" situations (movies, games, experiences, ideas) than talk to their kids about basic biological sexuality. Incidentally, these are sometimes the same parents that think it is "cute" or "adorable" to dress their little girls in clothing that covers maybe 25% of the skin. But enough soap-box pontificating. Let's take a look at the actual meanings of these words concerning violence, beginning with a little foundation work: harm and hurt.

Harm: (n) physical or mental injury or damage; moral injury, evil, wrong. (v) to cause harm, to do harm or damage; to injure physically, morally, or mentally [one could interchange mentally for emotionally]. 

          So, with harm, we are looking at the end result. Was the subject changed in a negative manner? Did the individual suffer any kind of deficit in their normal body or mental functioning, whether permanent or temporary? If so, then they experienced harm. Notice that there is nothing in this definition about intent. We are only looking at the end product of an action or failure to act. Note that we are also looking at the action involved that leads to the detrimental result.

 

Hurt: (v) to cause bodily or mental injury, distress or pain to someone or something; to damage or decrease the efficiency of some material object by striking, rough use, improper care, etc.; to cause harm or adversely affect someone of something; to cause mental pain, offend or cause grievance to someone; to feel or suffer bodily or mental pain or distress. (n) a blow that inflicts a would; bodily injury of the cause of the injury; damage; the cause of mental pain or offense such as an insult or a slight. (adj) physically injured; offended, unfavorably affected; damaged.

          It would appear that hurt is a more all-encompassing term that adds a layer of causation and intent. Like harm, it is both the action that leads to damages as well as the resulting damage. However, hurt tends to indicate a longer lasting effect, especially when using it to refer to the psychological realm. We rarely, if ever, talk about "harmed" feelings, but we often use the phrase "hurt feelings" to convey emotional upset or pain. Even our egos and pride are hurt, but rarely harmed. Hurt is much more intentional by nature and typically more lasting, more difficult to heal or undo.

 

Force: [NOT using the physics definition] (n) physical power, strength, energy, intensity; power to influence, affect, control; strength or power exerted upon an object or person such as through physical coercion or mental/emotional manipulation; physical violence. (legal noun) unlawful violence threatened or committed against persons or property. (v) to compel, constrain, oblige oneself or another to do something; to drive or propel against resistance; to bring about or effect by force; to overcome the resistance of someone or something.

          Here we see pure intent. In order to use force, one must have a desire for a particular result. That result does not necessarily lead to harm or hurt, but it does represent the conquering of some kind of resistance. Force is the exertion of one's will, often through physical or political or personality strength, in order to obtain one's own goals. It's very one-sided and does not have to involve physical actions, though the threat of physical actions often leads to a successful use of force, successful meaning the achievement of one's aims.

 

So, now we have some clearer ideas of the negative results of some behaviors and potentially what some of those behaviors might be. It is not time to explore larger concepts, specifically: aggression, hostility, and violence. One of the main differences between theses terms is the level of intent and/or the purpose to which they are applied.

Aggression: (n) the action of violating by force the rights of another; any offensive action, attack, or procedure; an inroad or encroachment; offensive action in general; overt or suppressed hostility, either innate or resulting from continued frustration and directed outward or against oneself.

          This actually seems pretty simple, especially in comparison to some of the other terms in this post. Aggression means that one person violates the rights, personal space, property, liberty, etc. of another person or another person's property. The point of aggression is to get what one wants and to show that one is the dominant person. Often times when an animal shows aggression it stops--i.e. does not continue with violent actions--once the object of the aggression acknowledges its abilities to cause harm and thus backs away. Unfortunately, aggressive behaviors in humans usually generates more aggression from the targets or creates victims whose rights are constantly trampled. The other thing about aggression is that it does not have to be physical or obvious. I'm sure some of you have heard of passive-aggressiveness or similar terms. Passive aggressiveness occurs when an individual appears to be passive by "giving in" to another's demands, but in reality is using this passive show to manipulate the other into doing exactly when they (the passive-aggressor) wanted. The goal can be achieved immediately through the use of such techniques as a guilt trip: 

"No, that's okay, you can go have fun. I'll be all right here all alone."[passive]

"Well, I don't have to go out tonight. I can stay with you." [response]

"Only if that's what YOU really want." [passive success]

The passive aggressive can also achieve their goals at a later time through manipulation, building up a sense of weakness so that other individuals never notice when the passive aggressor silently nudges them into the corner they wanted. What makes these behaviors, though passive, aggressive is that they still violate another person's rights and allow the aggressor to gain the upper hand and whatever they desire.
          Animals typically use aggression to assert their dominance over territory, resources and mating, and to protect their genetics. Humans don't always fit into this model. There are a number of psychological theories and hypotheses that attempt to explain human aggression. Sigmund Freud believed that aggression was an instinctive drive that all of our ids possess. Along with our instinct to create, the aggressive nature in humans is something that we will spend our lifetimes attempting to control as we try to progress beyond our animalistic natures.The frustration-aggression hypothesis indicates that all human aggression can be traced back to some form of frustration--the blocking of a goal. We only act aggressively if we can't get what we want or need through other means. Another thought on human aggression is that it is almost completely a learned behavior. An individual who experiences or witnesses aggression while they are younger will see aggression as an option, possibly the best or only option, to get what they desire. There has been some modification to this particular theory in that some researchers now believe that there may be a personality predisposition that would modify someone's tendency toward aggressiveness. The biological hypothesis is that aggressive behavior is the result of either too much testosterone, an excess of fatigue, or too low blood sugar (being hungry). According to this school of thought, a person is much more likely to behave aggressively until their body returns to a state of homeostasis. Sometimes taking a step back, grabbing a snack, or taking a nap can be quite calming. Beating up that punching bag can also help use up excess testosterone and other stress hormones.



Hostility: (n) a state, condition, or attitude of enmity, antagonism, or unfriendliness; a hostile act; opposition or resistance to an idea, plan, project, etc.; (plural) fighting, warfare.
          Again, this seems pretty simple. Hostility is dislike or tension created by someone. Often one person's hostility will generate a mutual feeling from their target. Note, also, that hostility does not have to involve actions, but rather focuses on the atmosphere and feelings experienced. Yes, violence and aggression can lead to hostility, but so can petty jealousy, vanity, or envy. This is a state of mind in which one conveys that someone or something is not welcome and that someone becomes well-aware of this state.

Violence: (n) swift and intense, powerful, untamed or devastating force; the use or an instance of rough or injurious physical force, action or treatment usually intended to inflict harm to the target; an unjust, unwarranted or unwanted exertion of force or power that may be used to violate rights, break laws, or overawe or intimidate others; rough or immoderate vehemence, great strength of feeling, as in the use of strong language; damage through distortion or unwarranted alteration.
          Here we see a clear case of intent. Except in the case of natural violence such as with a storm or natural disaster, violent actions are intentional behaviors that go to excessive lengths beyond those necessary in order to achieve some goal. The word "overkill" comes to mind. The point behind violent acts is not only to achieve the goal, which may be the damage itself, but to also leave a lasting impression on the victim and witnesses of the violence. There is obviously the expectation of physical damage wrought through violence. Is it possible to experience psychological violence? The answer is "Absolutely!" Have you ever heard the phrase "fighting words" used? These are words which are spoken for the primary purpose of enraging or causing fear in the target of the words. It is possible to be guilty of violence against another person by using harsh language or a tone of voice that produces anxiety and/or anger in that person. In that instance, one would have used an excess of rough treatment to achieve one's goal, probably to upset the target or get them to do something you wanted. Sticks and stones are violent, as are a verbalization from a barbed tongue.


If it helps, one way to distinguish, correctly, between these three methods of harming others or property is to look at them as part of a continuum of intent and damage. Hostility creates an uncomfortable environment. It may include actions and words, but it can also come about with something as simple as a wayward look or discouraging body language. It is typically sensed and processed at a semi-conscious level by the target. Aggression is goal-directed. An individual tends to engage in aggressive measures when other avenues leave them falling short of their desires and needs. Most aggression is short-lived; it tends to cease once the goal is reached. Violence, on the other hand, is not only designed to intentionally cause harm or hurt, but it is meant to have a longer lasting effect on its target by using means the go above and beyond what is necessary. Violence continues even after the goal is met, just to make sure the path stays clear longer than if mere aggression were used. Leaving lasting damage also leaves memories and learning, which typically produces fear of a return to the violence.
          Unfortunately, with all three of these--hostility, aggression, violence--we see a pattern of behavior in which one human has little regard for the negative effects of their behavior on another. They each show a self-centered obsession with getting what one wants despite the costs involved. The other problem with this maltreatment is that they tend to generate endless and/or escalating cycles. Person A is hostile to Person B, so that breeds hostility in Person B and their friends toward Person A and their friends. Next, Person A starts pushing around someone from the Person B camp because the Person B stands in the way of Person A. Person B then gets a group of their B people and pushes around some Person A people. Before you know it, the damaging behavior escalates further on both sides and people start to lose sight of the origin of the conflict. It's a common plot device. Unfortunately, it's also all-too-common in reality as well. Only when someone breaks the cycle will things calm down and we can start treating each other as equals, as fellow human beings.